Perspectives on Placebo: The Psychology of Neurofeedback
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15540/nr.5.4.137Keywords:
neurotherapy, EEG biofeedback, placebo, alpha, endorphins, dopamineAbstract
The application of operant conditioning with EEG variables to produce changes in behavior has been gaining increasing interest in research and application areas. However, the methodology has come under scrutiny and criticism for its potential placebo effects. This article will examine those issues from the traditional methodologies of demonstrating effectiveness (control group, sham treatments) as well as examine the possible biochemical and electrophysiological effects of a placebo response. Specifically, the role of endorphins and dopamine and their relationship to the alpha and beta frequency in the placebo response will be examined. The research addressing the diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) correlates of the intervention will be examined.
References
Amanzio, M., & Benedetti, F. (1999). Neuropharmacological dissection of placebo analgesia: Expectation-activated opioid systems versus conditioning-activated specific subsystems. The Journal of Neuroscience, 19(1), 484–494. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-01-00484.1999
Arruda, J. E., Zhang, H., Amoss, R. T., Coburn, K. L., & Aue, W. R. (2009). Rhythmic oscillations in quantitative EEG measured during a continuous performance task. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 34(1), 7–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10484-008-9071-0
Auckland District Health Board (ADHB). (2018). Newborn Services Drug Protocol. Dopamine hydrochloride. Retrieved from http://www.adhb.govt.nz/newborn/DrugProtocols /DopaminePharmacology.htm
Banich, M. T., Milham, M. P., Atchley, R., Cohen, N. J., Webb, A., Wszalek, T., … Magin, R. (2000). fMRI studies of Stroop tasks reveal unique roles of anterior and posterior brain systems in attentional selection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(6), 988–1000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/08989290051137521
Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., & Johnstone, S. J. (2003). A review of electrophysiology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Qualitative and quantitative electroencephalography. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114(2), 171–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00362-0
Beecher, H. K. (1955). The powerful placebo. Journal of the American Medical Association, 159(17), 1602–1606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1955.02960340022006
Benedetti, F., Colloca, L., Torre, E., Lanotte, M., Melcarne, A., Pesare, M., … Lopiano, L. (2004). Placebo-responsive Parkinson patients show decreased activity in single neurons of subthalamic nucleus. Nature Neuroscience, 7(6), 587–588. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1250
Bresnahan, S. M., Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., & Johnstone, S. J. (2006). Quantitative EEG analysis in dexamphetamine-responsive adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Research, 141(2), 151–159. http://dx.doi.org /10.1016/j.psychres.2005.09.002
Buchsbaum, M. S., Hazlett, E., Sicotte, N., Stein, M., Wu, J., & Zetin, M. (1985). Topographic EEG changes with benzodiazepine administration in generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 20(8), 832–842. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(85)90208-2
Bush, G., Frazier, J. A., Rauch, S. L., Seidman, L. J., Whalen, P. J., Jenike, M. A., … Biederman, J. (1999). Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop, Biological Psychiatry, 45(12), 1542–1552
Chabot, R. J., & Serfontein, G., (1996). Quantitative electroencephalographic profiles of children with attention deficit disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40(10), 951–963. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(95)00576-5
Cheon, E.-J., Koo, B.-H., & Choi, J.-H. (2016). The efficacy of neurofeedback in patients with major depressive disorder: An open labeled prospective study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 41(1), 103–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10484-015-9315-8
Cherry, K. (2018, November 14). How the Placebo Effect Works in Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com /what-is-the-placebo-effect-2795466
Clarke, A. R., Barry, R. J., McCarthy, R., Selikowitz, M., & Johnstone, S. J. (2007). Effects of stimulant medications on the EEG of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118(12), 2700–2708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2007.08.020
Cowan, J. D., & Albers, S. A. (2009). Manual for the peak brain happiness trainer: Exited happiness and Neureka! Protocols. Goshen, KY: Peak Achievement Training.
Cowan, J. D., & Sokhadze, E. (2011). Prefrontal gamma neurofeedback improves emotional state and cognitive function. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 36, S220.
Cowan, J., & Sokhadze, E. (2010, September 29–October 3). Happiness specifically increases a clarified 40 Hz EEG rhythm used for neurofeedback. Presented at the 18th International Society Neurofeedback Research Annual Conference, Denver, CO.
Crabbe, J. B., & Dishman, R. K. (2004). Brain electrocortical activity during and after exercise: A quantitative synthesis. Psychophysiology, 41(4), 563–574. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2004.00176.x
Dalayeun, J. F., Norès, J. M., Bergal, S. (1993). Physiology of beta-endorphins. A close-up view and a review of the literature. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 47(8), 311–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0753-3322(93)90080-5
de la Fuente-Fernández, R., Ruth, T. J., Sossi, V., Schulzer, M., Calne, D. B., & Stoessl, A. J. (2001). Expectation and dopamine release: Mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson's disease. Science, 293(5532), 1164–1166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1060937
Eippert, F., Bingel, U., Schoell, E. D., Yacubian, J., Klinger, R., Lorenz, J., & Büchel, C. (2009). Activation of the opioidergic descending pain control system underlies placebo analgesia. Neuron, 63(4), 533–543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.07.014
Ernst, M., Zametkin, A. J., Matochik, J. A., Liebenauer, L. Fitzgerald, G. A., & Cohen, R. M. (1994). Effects of intravenous dextroamphetamine on brain metabolism in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Preliminary findings. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 30(20), 219–225.
Feinberg, C. (2013, January–February). The placebo phenomenon. An ingenious researcher finds the real ingredients of “fake” medicine. Harvard Magazine, 115(3), 36–39.
Foley, K. M., Kourides, I. A., Inturrisi, C. E., Kaiko, R. F., Zaroulis, C. G., Posner, J. B., … Li, C. H. (1979). β-Endorphin: Analgesic and hormonal effects in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 76(10), 5377–5381.
Furmark, T., Appel, L., Henningsson, S., Åhs, F., Faria, V., Linnman, C., … Fredrikson, M. (2008). A link between serotonin-related gene polymorphisms, amygdala activity, and placebo-induced relief from social anxiety. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28(49), 13066–13074. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2534-08.2008
Gabrielli, W. F., Mednick, S. A., Volavka, J., Pollock, V. E., Schulsinger, F. & Itil, T. M. (1982). Electroencephalograms in children of alcoholic fathers. Psychophysiology, 19(4), 404-407.
Gani, C., Birbaumer, N., & Strehl, U. (2008). Long term effects after feedback of slow cortical potentials and of theta-beta-amplitudes in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). International Journal of Bioelectromagnetics, 10(4), 209–232.
Gevensleben, H., Holl, B., Albrecht, B., Schlamp, D., Kratz, O., Studer, P., … Heinrich, H. (2009). Distinct EEG effects related to neurofeedback training in children with ADHD: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 74(2), 149–157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.08.005
Gevensleben, H., Holl, B., Albrecht, B., Schlamp, D., Kratz, O., Studer, P., … Heinrich, H. (2010). Neurofeedback training in children with ADHD: 6-month follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(9), 715–724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-010-0109-5
Gevensleben, H., Holl, B., Albrecht, B., Vogel, C., Schlamp, D., Kratz, O., … Heinrich, H. (2009). Is neurofeedback an efficacious treatment for ADHD? A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(7), 780–789. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02033.x
Ghaziri, J., Tucholka, A., Larue, V., Blanchette-Sylvestre, M., Reyburn, G., Gilbert, G., … Beauregard, M. (2013). Neurofeedback training induces changes in white and gray matter. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 44(4), 265–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1550059413476031
Gracely, R. H., Dubner, R., Wolskee, P. J., & Deeter, W. R. (1983). Placebo and naloxone can alter post-surgical pain by separate mechanisms. Nature, 306(5940), 264–265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/306264a0
Grevert, P., Albert, L. H., & Goldstein, A. (1983). Partial antagonism of placebo analgesia by naloxone. Pain, 16(1), 129–143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(83)90203-8
Grin-Yatsenko, V. A., Othmer, S., Ponomarev, V. A., Evdokimov, S. A., Konoplev, Y. Y., & Kropotov, J. D. (2018) Infra-low frequency neurofeedback in depression: Three case studies. NeuroRegulation, 5(1), 30–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.15540/nr.5.1.30
Gruzelier, J. H. (2014). EEG-neurofeedback for optimising performance. III: A review of methodological and theoretical considerations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 44, 159 –182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.015
Gunkelman, J. (2009, December 23). Drug exposure and EEG/qEEG findings. Retrieved from http://brainm.com/software/pubs/Gunkelman Drug exposure and EEG.pdf
Gurnee, R. (2003). QEEG subtypes of anxiety. Presented at the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research 11th Annual Conference, Houston, TX.
Hall, K. T., Lembo. A. J., Kirsch. I., Ziogas, D. C., Douaiher, J., Jensen, K. B., … Kaptchuk, T. J. (2012). Catechol-O-methyltransferase val158met polymorphism predicts placebo effect in irritable bowel syndrome. PLoS ONE, 7(10), e48135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048135
Hall, K. T., Loscalzo, J., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2015). Genetics and the placebo effect: The placebome. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 21(5), 285–294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2015.02.009
Hamilton, L. S., Levitt, J. G., O’Neil, J., Alger, J. R., Luders, E., Phillips, O. R., ... Narr, K. L. (2008). Reduced white matter integrity in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroreport, 19(17), 1705–1708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3283174415
Hammond, D. C. (2005). Neurofeedback with anxiety and affective disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(1), 105–123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2004.07.008
Heller, W., Nitschke, J. B., Etienne, M. A., & Miller, G. A. (1997). Patterns of regional brain activity differentiate types of anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(3), 376–385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.3.376
Hróbjartsson, A., & Gøtzsche, P. A. (2010). Placebo interventions for all clinical conditions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003974.pub3
Kaptchuk, T. J., Friedlander, E., Kelley, J. M., Sanchez, M. N., Kokkotou, E., Singer, J. P., … Lembo, A. J. (2010). Placebos without deception: A randomized controlled trial in irritable bowel syndrome. PLoS ONE, 5(12), e15591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015591
Kong, J., Gollub, R. L., Rosman, I. S., Webb, J. M., Vangel, M. G., Kirsch, I., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2006). Brain activity associated with expectancy-enhanced placebo analgesia as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(2), 381–388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523 /JNEUROSCI.3556-05.2006
Konrad, A., Dielentheis, T. F., Masri, D. E., Dellani, P. R., Stoeter, P., Vucurevic, G., & Winterer, G. (2012). White matter abnormalities and their impact on attentional performance in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 262(4), 351–360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-011-0251-1
Leins, U., Goth, G., Hinterberger, T., Klinger, C., Rumpf, N., & Strehl, U. (2007). Neurofeedback for children with ADHD: A comparison of SCP and theta-beta protocols. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 32(2), 73–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10484-007-9031-0
Leuchter, A. F., Cook, I. A., Witte, E. A., Morgan, M., & Abrams, M. (2002). Changes in brain function of depressed subjects during treatment with placebo. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(1), 122–129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.1.122
Lévesque, J., Beauregard, M., & Mensour, B. (2006). Effect of neurofeedback training on the neural substrates of selective attention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience Letters, 394(3), 216–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2005.10.100
Levine, J. D., Gordon, N. C., Jones, R. T., & Fields, H. L. (1978). The narcotic antagonist naloxone enhances clinical pain. Nature, 272, 826–827.
Lipman, J. J., Miller, B. E., Mays, K. S., Miller, M. N., North, W. C., & Byrne, W. L. (1990). Peak B endorphin concentration in cerebrospinal fluid: reduced in chronic pain patients and increased during the placebo response. Psychopharmacology, 102(1), 112–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02245754
Lubar, J. F., Swartwood, M. O., Swartwood, J. N., & Timmermann, D. L. (1996). Quantitative EEG and auditory event-related potentials in the evaluation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Effects of methylphenidate and implications for neurofeedback training. [Monograph: Assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders]. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 143–204.
Matochik, J. A., Liebenauer, L. L., King, A. C., Szymanski, H. V., Cohen, R. M., & Zametkin, A. J. (1994). Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder after chronic stimulant treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(5), 658–664. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.5.658
Matsuura, M., Okubo, Y., Toru, M., Kojima, T., He, Y., Hou, Y., … Lee, C. K. (1993). A cross-national EEG study of children with emotional and behavioral problems: A WHO collaborative study in the Western Pacific Region. Biological Psychiatry, 34(1–2), 59–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(93)90257-E
Mimasa, F., Hayashi, T., Shibata, M., Yoshitake, Y., Nishijima, Y., & Moritani, T. (1996). Movement of electroroencephalogram and plasm β-endorphin in the aerobic exercise. Japanese Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 45(5), 519–526. http://dx.doi.org/10.7600/jspfsm1949.45.519
Molteni, E., Bianchi, A. M., Butti, M., Reni, G., & Zucca, C., (2007). Analysis of the dynamical behaviour of the EEG rhythms during a test of sustained attention. Conference Proceedings: Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 1298–1301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IEMBS.2007.4352535
Monastra, V. J., Monastra, D. M., & George, S. (2002). The effects of stimulant therapy, EEG biofeedback, and parenting style on the primary symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 27(4), 231–249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021018700609
Nestler, E. J., Hyman, S. E., & Malenka, R. C., (2009). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed., p. 321). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical.
Niogi, S., Mukherjee, P., Ghajar, J., & McCandliss, B. D. (2010). Individual differences in distinct components of attention are linked to anatomical variations in distinct white matter tracts. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 4, 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/neuro.05.002.2010
Pavuluri, M. N., Yang, S., Kamineni, K., Passarotti, A. M., Srinivasan, G., Harral, E. M., … Zhou, X. J. (2009). Diffusion tensor imaging study of white matter fiber tracts in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65(7), 586¬–593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.015
Peniston, E. G., & Kulkosky, P. J. (1989). Alpha-theta brainwave training and beta-endorphin levels in alcoholics. Alcoholism, Clinical & Experimental Research, 13(2), 271–279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1989.tb00325.x
Petrovic, P., Dietrich, T., Fransson, P., Andersson, J., Carlsson, K., & Ingvar, M. (2005). Placebo in emotional processing—induced expectations of anxiety relief activate a generalized modulatory network. Neuron, 46(6), 957–969. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.05.023
Petrovic, P., Kalso, E., Petersson, K. M., & Ingvar, M. (2002). Placebo and opioid analgesia—imaging a shared neuronal network. Science, 295(5560), 1737–1740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1067176
Pfefferbaum, A., Berger, P. A., Elliot, G. R., Tinklenberg, J. R., Kopell, B. S., Barchas, J. D., & Li, C. H. (1979). Human EEG response to beta-endorphin. Psychiatry Research, 1(1), 83–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(79)90031-3
Qiu, M.-G., Ye, Z., Li, Q.-Y., Liu, G.-J., Xie, B., & Wang, J. (2011). Changes of brain structure and function in ADHD children. Brain Topography, 24(3-4), 243–252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10548-010-0168-4
Raymond, J., Varney, C., Parkinson, L. A., & Gruzelier, J. H. (2005). The effects of alpha/theta neurofeedback on personality and mood. Cognitive Brain Research, 23(2–3), 287–292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.10.023
Rossi, E. L. (1986). The psychobiology of mind-body healing: New concepts of therapeutic hypnosis (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Saletu, B., Anderer, P., Saletu-Zyhlarz, G. M., Arnold, O., & Pascual-Marqui, R. D. (2002). Classification and evaluation of the pharmacodynamics of psychotropic drugs by single-lead pharmaco-EEG, EEG mapping and tomography (LORETA). Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, 24(Suppl. C), 97–120.
Scott, D. J., Stohler, C. S., Egnatuk, C. M., Wang, H., Koeppe, R. A., & Zubieta, J.-K. (2008). Placebo and nocebo effects are defined by opposite opioid and dopaminergic responses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(2), 220–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.34
Scott, W. C., Kaiser, D., Othmer, S., & Sideroff, S. I. (2005). Effects of an EEG biofeedback protocol on a mixed substance abusing population. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 31(3), 455–469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/ADA-200056807
Sherlin, L., Arns, M. Lubar, J., & Sokhadze, E. (2010). A position paper on neurofeedback for treatment of ADHD. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14(2), 66–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10874201003773880
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.
Snyder, S. M., & Hall, J. R. (2006). A meta-analysis of quantitative EEG power associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 23(5), 441–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.wnp.0000221363.12503.78
Sokhadze, E. M., & Daniels, R. (2016). Effects of prefrontal 40 Hz-centered EEG band neurofeedback on emotional state and cognitive functions in adolescents. Adolescent Psychiatry, 6(2), 116–129. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/2210676606666161025115616
Sokhadze, T. M., Cannon, R. L., & Trudeau, D. L. (2008). EEG biofeedback as a treatment for substance use disorders: Review, rating of efficacy, and recommendations for further research. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 33(1), 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10484-007-9047-5
Staddon, J. E. R., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124
Thibault, R. T., & Raz, A. (2017). The psychology of neurofeedback: Clinical intervention even if applied placebo. American Psychologist, 72(7), 679–688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000118
Thornton, K. E. (2006). No child left behind goals (and more) are attainable with neurocognitive interventions (Vol. 1). North Charleston, SC: Booksurge Press.
Thornton, K. (2016). How the cognitive brain works: The quantitative EEG and cognition. Clover, SC: Kirtley Thornton. Printed by Create Space.
Thornton, K. E., & Carmody, D. P. (2005). EEG biofeedback for reading disabilities and traumatic brain injuries. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(1), 137–162.
Thornton, K. E., & Carmody, D. P. (2008). Efficacy of traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: interventions of qEEG-guided biofeedback, computers, strategies, and medications. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 33(2), 101–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10484-008-9056-z
Thornton, K. E., & Carmody, D. P. (2013). The relation between memory improvement and qEEG changes in three clinical groups as a result of EEG biofeedback treatment. Journal of Neurotherapy, 17(2), 116–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10874208.2013.785183
van Ewijk, H., Heslenfeld, D. J., Zwiers, M. P., Buitelaar, J. K., & Oosterlaan, J. (2012). Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1093–1106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003
Volavka, J., James, B., Reker, D., & Cho, D. (1979). Electroencephalographic and other effects of naloxone in normal men. Life Sciences, 25(14), 1267–1272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(79)90471-5
Wager, T. D., Rilling, J. K., Smith, E. E., Sokolik, A., Casey, K. L., Davidson, R. J., … Cohen, J. D. (2004). Placebo-induced changes in fMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain. Science, 303(5661), 1162–1167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1093065
Wager, T. D., Scott, D. J., & Zubieta, J. K. (2007). Placebo effects on human mu-opioid activity during pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(26), 11056–11061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702413104
Walker, J. E. (2009). Anxiety associated with post traumatic stress disorder—The role of quantitative electroencephalograph in diagnosis and in guiding neurofeedback training to remediate the anxiety. Biofeedback, 37(2), 67–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5298/1081-5937-37.2.67
Wang, S.-Y., Lin, I.-M., Peper, E., Chen, Y.-T., Yeh, Y.-C., … Chu, C. (2016). The efficacy of neurofeedback among patients with major depressive disorder: Preliminary study. NeuroRegulation, 3(3), 127–134. http://dx.doi.org/10.15540/nr.3.3.127
Wechsler, M. E., Kelley, J. M., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2011). Placebos and other interventions in asthma. The New England Journal of Medicine, 365(15), 1447.
World Research Foundation (WRF) Staff. (n.d.) The power of mind and the promise of placebo. Retrieved from http://www.wrf.org/alternative-therapies/power-of-mind-placebo.php
Zubieta, J.-K., Bueller, J. A., Jackson, L. R., Scott, D. J., Xu, Y., Koeppe, R. A., … Stohler, C. S. (2005). Placebo effects mediated by endogenous opioid activity on mu-opioid receptors. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25(34), 7754–7762. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0439-05.2005
Zubieta, J.-K., & Stohler, C. S. (2009). Neurobiological mechanisms of placebo responses. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156(1), 198–210. http://dx.doi.org /10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04424.x
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
